First Look: Operational Practice of Startle and Surprise

By: Dr. James Blundell, Jeroen van Rooij, Dr. Annemarie Landman, Daan Vlaskamp

Pilots use and appreciate a recently implemented startle management method, and experience positive effects of its use. Follow-up research indicated keeping the method short and simple is preferable. Significantly, the startle paradox makes it more difficult to perform the method when it’s most needed. Of additional relevance to CAT, after the successful introduction, the training focus should be on practicing the method in difficult situations.

Regaining Control After Startle and Surprise

In the article “Relax, Observe, Confirm” (CAT  Magazine 3-2018) Julie Boatman Filucci spoke to Edzard Boland and Jeroen van Rooij about their training to mitigate startle and surprise, a training developed by the NLR (Netherlands Aerospace Centre) and a major European airline at the initiative of EASA. In this article we present follow-up research, consisting of the first evaluation in operational practice of a startle and surprise management method that was the result of this research.

Startle (a reflex-like response to an unexpected intense stimulus) and surprise (a cognitive-emotional response caused by a mismatch between expectations and reality) have been implicated as contributing factors in several aviation incidents and accidents, such as AF447.

Simulator research has shown that startle and surprise management methods can improve pilot decision making and are found useful by pilots as noted below by Field et al., 2018 and Landman et al., 2020.

The method developed by NLR has been further developed by the airline where the research took place. Referred to as the “Reset Method” it consists of the following self-management steps:

1. Announce: “Reset”;

2. Take physical distance: pushing one’s back into the back of the seat;

3. Perform a simple breathing technique: taking one or more deep abdominal breaths, and exhaling slowly;

4. Relax any tension in muscles;

5. Check the wellbeing of one’s colleague and

6. Systematically build situational awareness by calling out observed indications of the problem.

The airline company introduced this method to its pilots in 2018 using a combination of an iBook with instructions, and a simulator session preceded by a briefing that included hands-on training using a VR headset. To evaluate its use and effectiveness, our current follow-on research used ten interviews with airline pilots and a survey which was filled in by 239 active pilots who worked for this company and were taught this method. They formed a balanced mix of long and short-haul pilots from different age groups and experience levels. The company has printed the method in its manuals and made it part of its suggested non-normal strategy to deal with non-normal situations, but its use is not obligatory. This non-normal strategy places the Reset method after the steps protect yourself and establishing safe flightpath. For example, during a decompression the reset would be undertaken after donning an oxygen mask and bringing the flightpath under control.

The results of the research showed that startle and surprise are a common occurrence: 90.8% of pilots reported that they had experienced startle and/or surprise. No distinction was made between the startle and surprise in the survey questions, as the terms are often used interchangeably, especially by pilots, and the stress induced cognitive and physiological effects are similar. Of the respondents, 39.2% had used the Reset method after experiencing real-life startle and/or surprise. Critically, of those that had used the method, 98.8% found the method useful and nobody reported experiencing negative effects of its use. Positive effects experienced by the pilots were, among others, a reduced stress level, better situational awareness and improved decision-making. These findings confirm the results from the earlier simulator research. Of all respondents, 87.4 % indicated that they felt better prepared for startle and surprise events thanks to having learned the method. The steps that were perceived as being the most useful were: checking the wellbeing of one’s colleague and performing the breathing technique.

Only a few pilots remained skeptical about the usefulness of the method.

The respondents who had not used the Reset method when experiencing real-life startle and/or surprise, indicated that the main barriers for use were unfamiliarity with the method and the sense that immediate action needed to be taken. Other factors mentioned were not recognizing being startled or experiencing pressure from the other pilot to “move on.” The paradox of startle and surprise is that the higher the stress level becomes, the more task-focused pilots become, and the more difficult it is to take time to undertake effective self-management, right when it is needed the most. Even in situations in which immediate action is indeed required (such as upsets), subsequent decision-making can benefit from performing the Reset method after the necessary immediate actions are performed. (Landman, 2020).

Several pilots reported finding the method too long, as the “take physical distance” and “muscle relaxation” steps were reported to be used significantly less than the other steps. Previous research cited by Landman, et al., 2020, into another method, named “COOL” (Calm down, Observe, Outline, Lead) showed that that method sometimes increased mental workload and interfered with task prioritization. These findings show that keeping a startle/surprise management method short and simple is preferable. This makes it easier to perform under high stress, minimize mental effort required and feel less time-consuming for the pilots.

Eight hypothetical scenarios were proposed to the surveyed pilots to ascertain when the Reset method was deemed most difficult to apply (and consequently less useful). Bird strike and lightning strike were considered the easiest scenarios to apply the method in. These are usually situations without severe consequences, where no elaborate procedures have to be performed. Even though task prioritization is clearly defined in the company’s non-normal strategy, pilots found it more difficult to incorporate the “Reset” into aircraft upset recovery, and more complicated scenarios such as emergency descent or a rejected take-off. Industry-wide incident reports show that these are situations where startle and surprise have a significant impact on performance. For situations such as upsets or a rejected take off, training reflexive initial responses remains necessary, as is the current practice. Performing a reset after bringing the flightpath under control has proved to be beneficial for decision making in earlier research as noted by Landman et al., 2020. For other scenarios, coaching pilots in the simulator to help find the most advantageous moment to use the method is likely to be beneficial.

A Necessary and Appreciated Tool

All in all, the Reset method has proven to be a necessary and appreciated tool for pilots. Respondents clearly experienced benefits from using the method. Keeping the method as short and as simple as possible will enhance its adoption. It is important to organize a good initial introduction of the method, explaining its underlying principles, and for which types of situations it is appropriate. Awareness of the very human urge to act immediately upon perceiving a threat, and how this may interfere with using the Reset method (the startle paradox), should be emphasized. Second, regular training of applying the method in the simulator is needed so that the method becomes part of the pilots’ automatic responses to startling or surprising situations. This makes it easier to perform the method under high stress. Pilots should be coached with the integration of the startle management method into their standard procedures to make sure it is applied at the appropriate moment. Use of the method should not be forced upon the pilots or made mandatory but left to the pilots’ discretion to achieve optimal acceptance of the method. With these considerations in place, pilots will have an effective tool at their disposal to help them stay in control in unexpected situations.

Authors’ References

Field, J. N., Boland, E. J., Van Rooij, J. M., Mohrmann, J. F. W., & Smeltink, J. W. (2018). Startle Effect Management. (report nr. NLR-CR-2018-242). European Aviation Safety Agency. Retrieved April 7, 2023, from https://www.easa.europa.eu/en/document-library/researchreports/easarepresea20153

Landman, A., van Middelaar, S. H., Groen, E. L., van Paassen, M. M., Bronkhorst, A. W., & Mulder, M. (2020). The effectiveness of a mnemonic-type startle and surprise management procedure for pilots. The International Journal of Aerospace Psychology, 30(3-4), 104-118.

Authors’ note: Definitions adapted from https://dictionary.apa.org/startle-response

Editor’s note. Introducing the authors:

Dr. James Blundell, Cranfield University, UK

Jeroen van Rooij, Airline Captain, Netherlands Aerospace Centre, The Netherlands

Dr. Annemarie Landman, Delft University, TNO, The Netherlands

Daan Vlaskamp, Airline Captain, MSc Human Factors in Aviation, The Netherlands